Abdal Khan son of Ali Sher Khan (Ruler of Skardu, Baltistan or Little Tibet)

Abdal Khan (ruler of Skardu, Baltistan and Klein-Tibet)

Abdal Khan (also called Abdul Khan) was a son of Ali Sher Khan , probably the most important ruler of Skardu in Baltistan . As a member of the Makpon ruling family of Skardu he ruled only a few years in the first half of the 17th century and lost his throne in 1636 by an invasion arranged by the Indian Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan (1627-1658). This ended the independence of the ruling houses in Baltistan for the rest of the 17th century. Historically, the area directly dominated by the Abdal Khan in Baltistan is next to the core land Skardu also Shigar , Rondu and Kartakshoincluded. In the literary literature of Baltistan, he is still alive today as a sinister figure with the nickname "Mizos" "man-eater".

After the death of Ali Sher Khan in the twenties of the 17th century, his eldest son Ahmad Khan took over the rule in Skardu for a short time. After his death, his eldest son, Muhammad Murad, who was also called Murad Khan , did not enter the reign of Skardu. He was perhaps still a minor, but Abdal Khan, his father's brother, who now took over the government. But Abdal Khan was wise enough to involve his nephew Murad in his government. The latter functioned as his Vakil, and thus directed the administration of the kingdom as a sort of government.

The takeover of power by Abdal Khan was an argument with his apparently older brother Adam Khanwho then secretly appealed to the governor of Kashmir, asking him to support his claim to power (Bernier, p. 163). Abdal Khan was unpopular with his subjects (Láhorí, p. 62) because of his hard exercise of power, and so it is not surprising that the Governor of Kashmir was even supported by relatives of Abdal Khans in his invasion of Baltistan in 1636. Mention is made in particular of a person named Hasan (Khan), a nephew of Abdal Khan, who, accompanied by his supporters with the invasion troops, was seized to Baltistan (Láhorí, p. 63) and apparently the 19th ruler of the Amacha- Ruling family of Shigar. But his brother Adam Khan was also on the side of the invaders.

The disputes within Baltistan, however, were not yet an occasion for the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to follow the plans of his predecessors, the Emperor Akbar (1556-1605) and Jahangir (1605-1627), to the conquest of Baltistan. It is reported in Abdel Khan for the year 1633 that he sent gifts to the court of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, had coins minted in the name of this Indian emperor, and mentioned his name in the holiday speech, that he thus showed benevolence against the Indian magnificence (Behrouz, p. 76, referring to the source Shah Jahan-Nama of Muhammad Iahir Ashna (1657)).

Figure 1: The Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan

The real reason for an invasion of Baltistan was after Muhammad Iahir Ashna, a son of Zafar Khan, the then governor of Kashmir, unrest in Kashmir. Habib Chak and Ahmad Chak were falsely supported by Abdal Khan, who even gave them shelter in Skardu, which made an attack by imperial troops against Baltistan inevitable (Behrouz, p. 75f). Zafar Khan therefore asked the Emperor Shah Jahan to carry out an invasion of Baltistan. After the approval of Shah Jahan, Governor Zafar Khan, at the head of an army of about 2,000 cavalry and 10,000 infantrymen, supported by his own troops as governor and by other armed men from Kashmir to Baltistan (Behrouz, p. 76f, Láhorí , P. 63). Among these troops, as already mentioned, also relatives of the ruling house of Abdal Khan, as its brother Adam Khan, its nephew Hasan Khan, and other Baltis. After breaking the defensive wall erected on the Satpara lake, the imperial army reached the Skardu on the Indus on August 28, 1636, after a month's advance.

Abdal Khan had entrenched himself in the Kharphocho fortress , while his leading minister, Muhammad Murad, had retired to the Kahchana fortress. His family had previously brought Abdal Khan to safety with the Shigar's fortress, with all his possessions of gold, silver, and other precious things under the leadership of his fifteen-year-old son Daulat. The latter also confirms that Abdal Khan had taken over the rule over Shigar in its entirety.

The window of time of the invaders for the completion of their project in Baltistan was very small and lasted for a maximum of two months, since the absence of such a large army in Baltistan was impossible in the winter, and the passports that made a return possible were only passable until the end of October , In the ensuing siege of the two castles in Skardu, the governor of Kashmir was also supported by Adam Khan, the brother of the ruler of Skardu, who, with his followers, contributed to the supply of the two fortresses Kharphocho and Kahchana with provisions.

To get hold of the family of Abdal Khan, Zafar Khan first sent the generals Mir Fahr ad-Din and Bahram Beg with 4000 cavalry and infantrymen to Shigar. The small army crossed the Indus with provisional wooden ferries and advanced against Shigar, where they were attacked by Daulat, the fifteen-year-old son of Abdal Khan. The superior Imperial troops defeated this attack, and Daulat took flight to Kashgar, taking part of the family treasure. The imperial troops stormed the fortress of Shigar and plundered them, while the defenseless women and children of Abdal Khan were arrested by Fahr ad-Din.

Zafar Khan now opened negotiations with the Abdal Khan, who was encircled by the encamped Kharphocho fortress. At the same time, Adam Khan, the brother of the ruler of Skardu, succeeded in persuading Muhammad Murad, who had been laid siege to Kahchana fortress. Confronted with this fact, Abdal Khan had no choice but to surrender to the assailants.

Zafar Khan used Muhammad Murad as successor to Abdal Khan, and immediately returned to Kashmir with Abdal Khan as his prisoner in the face of an imminent winter. Nothing is known about the further fate of this unruly ruler, Abdal Khans, in Baltistan.

The decision of the Governor of Kashmir to employ Muhammad Murad alias Murad Khan as successor to Abdal Khan was later revised by Emperor Shah Jahan. This transferred the administration of Baltistan's Adam Khan, the brother of the ruler who had been dragged to Kashmir.

literature

Banat Gul Afridi: Baltistan in History. Peshawar 1988
Koshrow Behrouz: Shigar-Nāma. A Persian Verschronik on the history of Baltistan. Critical text output, commentary and translation. Unpublished manuscript from the nineties of the 20th century
Francis Bernier: Travels in the Mogul Empire. Translated from the French by Irving Brook. Vol. II, London, 1826
Hashmatullah Khan: History of Baltistan. Lok Virsa Translation, Islamabad 1987. The original in Urdu was published in
1939'Bdu-l Hamíd Láhorí: Bádsháh-náma. In: The History of India as Told by its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period. The Posthumous Papers of the Late Sir HH Elliot. Edited and Continued by Professor John Dowson. Vol. VII. First Indian Edition. Allahabad 1964, p. 3-72
Luciano Petech: The Kingdom of Ladakh. C. 950-1842 AD Roma 1977

Author: Dieter Schuh, 2010

Abdal Khan (Ruler of Skardu, Baltistan or Little Tibet)

Abdal Khan (Abdul Khan) was a son of  Ali Sher Khan , the most prominent ruler of Skardu in  Baltistan . As a member of the ruling family of Makpon-   Skardu he reigned only a few years in the first half of the 17th Century and lost his throne in 1636 by the invasion arranged by the Indian Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan (1627-1658). As a result, the independence of the ruling houses in Baltistan ended for the rest of the 17th Century. Historically Certain is, dass die Abdal Khan in addition to the heartland Skardu controlled Directly Further areas of Baltistan like  Shigar ,  Rondu and  Kartaksho   , In the popular literature of Baltistan he is still alive as dark figure by the nickname "Mizos" "man-eater".

After the death of Ali Sher Khan in the twenties of the 17th century his eldest son Ahmad Khan ruled in Skardu for a short time. After his death his eldest son, Muhammad Murad, so called Murad Khan , should have inherited the throne in Skardu. But instead of him, Abdal Khan, the brother of his father, took over the government. Abdal Khan what smart enough to include his nephew Murad in his government. Murad Khan acted as his father and his wife.

The seizure of power by Abdal Khan resulted in a fight with his older brother Adam Khan , who secretly Addressed the Governor of cashmere with the request to support his claim for power (Bernier, P. 163). (Lahori, p. 62). This is the reason for the fact that the author is not the only one who has the right to do so. So it is not surprising that the Governor of Cashmere was even surprised by the relative of Abdal Khan during his invasion of Baltistan in 1636. In particular, Hasan (Khan), a nephew of Abdal Khan followers, supported the invading forces (Lahori, p 63). Hasan was apparently the 19th ruler of the Amacha family of Shigar. Abdal's brother Adam Khan.

The Emperor Akbar (1556-1605) and Jahangir (1605-1627), to conquer Baltistan. In honor of Abdal Khan, we find in fact a report of the year 1633, that he sent to the court of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, minted in the name of this Indian Emperor and the Emporer's name in the holiday sermons. (Behrouz, p.76, citing the source of Muhammad Shah, Jahan-Nama, Iahir Ashna, 1657).

The real reason for the invasion is according to Muhammad Iahir Ashna, a son of Zafar Khan, the then governor of Kashmir, unrest in Kashmir. The rioters Habib Ahmad Chak Chak were foolishly supported by Abdal Khan. He even granted them refugees in Skardu, which made an attack on Imperial troops towards Baltistan inevitable (Behrouz, pp. 75f). Zafar Khan therefore requested the Emperor Shah Jahan to carry out an invasion of Baltistan. Following the approval by Shah Jahan, the governor, Zafar Khan, started his attack on Baltistan at the head of an army of about 2000 cavalry and 10,000 infantry, supported by his own troops and accompanied by further armed men from Cashmere (Behrouz, pp. 76f, Lahori, p 63). He is also a member of the Abdul Khan family, his brother, Adam Khan, his nephew Hasan Khan, and other Baltis. After they had the defensive walls on Satpara Lake, the Imperial Army, after a one-month advance Skardu on the 28 August 1636.

Abdal Khan entrenched in the  fortress  Kharphocho while his leading ministers Muhammad Murad retired into the fortress Kahchana. Under the leadership of his fifteen year old son Daulat, Abdal's family had left Skardu with all his possessions in gold, silver and other valuables. They fled to the fortress of Shigar . This event proves, that Abdal Khan had seized full control of Shigar at that time.

The time window of the invaders for the completion of their project in Baltistan was very small and not much more than two months ago. The passes between Skardu and Cashmere, which made a return possible were only possible until the end of October. In the following victory of two castles in Skardu, the governor of Cashmere. He advised his followers to stop the supplies of the two fortresses Kharphocho and Kahchana.

In order to get hold of the family of Abdal Khan, Zafar Khan sent his first commanders. The army used wooden ferries to cross the Indians and advanced on Shigar, where they were attacked by Daulat, the fifteen-year-old son of Abdal Khan. The imperial troops repulsed the attack and Daulat. The imperial troops stormed the fortress of Shigar and looted it, while the unprotected women and children of Abdal Khan were arrested by Fahr ad-Din.

With this pledge in the back Zafar Khan now opened negotiations with the trapped Abdal Khan, who was staying in the besieged fortress Kharphocho. Meanwhile Adam Khan, the brother of the ruler of Skardu, was able to persuade Muhammad Murad, besieged in the fort Kahchana, to surrender. Faced with this circumstances Abdal Khan had no choice but to surrender to the attackers.

Zafar Khan appointed Muhammad Murad as a successor of Abdal Khan and returned to his father. The fate of this unpopular ruler in Baltistan is not known.

The decision of the Governor of Cashmire to appointed Murad Khan as the successor of Abdal Khan, which was revised later on by Emperor Shah Jahan. He transferred the power over Baltistan to Adam Khan, the brother of the captured ruler of Baltistan.

Literature

Banat Gul Afridi: Baltistan in History. Peshawar 1988
Koshrow Behrouz: Shigar-Nāma. A Persian Verschronik on the history of Baltistan. Critical text output, commentary and translation. Unpublished manuscript from the nineties of the 20th century
Francis Bernier: Travels in the Mogul Empire. Translated from the French by Irving Brook. Vol. II, London, 1826
Hashmatullah Khan: History of Baltistan. Lok Virsa Translation, Islamabad 1987. The original text was written in Urdu and was published
1939'Abdu-l Hamíd Láhorí: Bádsháh-náma. In: The History of India as Told by its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period. The Posthumous Papers of the Late Sir HH Elliot. Edited and Continued by Professor John Dowson. Vol. VII. First Indian Edition. Allahabad 1964, p. 3-72
Luciano Petech: The Kingdom of Ladakh. C. 950-1842 AD Roma 1977

Author: Dieter Schuh, 2010

Reference:

Copied from: http://www.tibet-encyclopaedia.de/abdal-khan.html

History of Baltistan By Dieter Schuh, 2011, amended (4.2 On the Islamization of Baltistan) 2014

History of Baltistan

Reference: Copied from 

http://www.tibet-encyclopaedia.de/baltistan.html

Figure 1: The location of Baltistan in the extreme north-east of Pakistan. Source:   www.lib.utexas.edu/ maps / kashmir.html		Figure 2: The Karakorum Highway (red) from Islamad to Sinkiang and the 170 km long connecting road (black) to Skardu in Baltistan

Baltistan (Little-Tibet)

Baltistan, formerly also known as Little Tibet (Little Tibet, Petit Tibet, Tibet Minor), is a high mountainous region in the extreme north-east of Pakistan. Baltistan is characterized by its location in the Karakorum stretching between the 35th and 36th northern latitudes over about 650 km, a huge mountain range, with the K2 also the second highest mountain in the world. Less than 1% of the area of ​​Baltistan is irrigated, so that the region, as seen from the oases and mountain pastures along the rivers, consists essentially of inhospitable high mountains and deserts. Baltistan borders Ladakh in the south and south-east and Kashmir in the south-west. The western neighbors are Chilas, Astor and Gilgit. In the north-west are Nagar and Hunza, and in the north and north-east, this region borders the areas of the China-administered Sinkiang (Xinjiang). Baltistan is to be reached by air from Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan. The only airfield in Baltistan is in Skardu . Apart from that, since the beginning of the 1980s the country has only been accessible by a road that can be driven by motor vehicles. It runs westwards from Skardu along the Indus and connects Baltistan with the western Karakorum Highway, which opens up from Islamabad to the north of Pakistan and leads to Sinkiang. The areas bordering Ladakh, including Nubra, bordered on the south and east, are military barriers and largely impassable. The main rivers of Baltistan are the Indus and the Shayok. The bulk of the inhabited areas of Baltistan lies at an altitude between 2200 and 2500 meters above sea level.

Within Pakistan, Baltistan was one of the Northern Areas. Today this area is called Gilgit-Baltistan. However, the constitutional status of Gilgit-Baltistan is not clearly defined within the constitution of the State of Pakistan. Baltistan is divided into the Skardu and Gangche districts. The Skardu district includes the former King Rondu , Shigar , Skardu and Kartaksho ( Kharmang ). Gangche district includes the ancient Khaplu and Kiris dominions . The inhabitants of Baltistan speak a Tibetan language and use as Urdu language, the official language of Pakistan. The Balti are committed to Islam. In their majority, they are Shiites. In 1911 one counted about 100,000 inhabitants in Baltistan. According to the census of 1998, 215,000 people lived in the Skardu district and 88,000 people in the Gangche district, a total population of Baltistan of 303,000. In 2007 there were 385,000 inhabitants in Baltistan. Given the dramatic population growth of an average of 2.5% per year, the number of residents now exceeds 400,000, with most of the population growth post-1911 post-1911 growing. 000 inhabitants. Given the dramatic population growth of an average of 2.5% per year, the number of residents now exceeds 400,000, with most of the population growth post-1911 post-1911 growing. 000 inhabitants. Given the dramatic population growth of an average of 2.5% per year, the number of residents now exceeds 400,000, with most of the population growth post-1911 post-1911 growing.

Baltistan has long been one of the poorest areas within Pakistan. In the first decade of the 21st century, however, the difference in living standards in Gilgit-Baltistan to that of the South of Pakistan has been considerably reduced. However, this observation is not intended to divert attention from the fact that Baltistan is one of the poorest areas in Asia. At present, 1/3 of the population of the Gangche district lives below the poverty threshold defined for Pakistan.

However, with its land-like mosques , Khanqa Prayer Halls , Astana Tomb Monuments , Matam Serai Memorial Halls and stately, castle-like castles , this country has numerous architectural monuments to be classified as of international importance. 

Figure 3: Baltistan and its six former King Rondu (blue edged), Skardu (black edged), Shigar (red edged), Kiris (yellow edged), Khaplu (green edged) and Kartaksho (violet edged) Khan Cultural Service Pakistan issued an overview map

1. Transport to the outside and inside

The peculiarities of the geographic conditions of Baltistan had a great influence on the course of its history and is also of importance for today's development possibilities. Comparing the reports of travelers of the 19th and 20th century about this country with the current state of Baltistan, one can see the tremendous changes in the flight connection with the remaining parts of Pakistan and in particular the construction of the road from Karakorum Highway to Skardu Have brought about. Just as important for the modern development of the country was its inner development by the construction of roads and bridges across the Indus and Shayok rivers, which now connect all important parts of the country. The same is true for supplying many places with electricity.

Figure 4: Modern bridges across the Indus on the way to the Shigar Valley (October 2007)

Figure 5: The road from the Karakorum Highway to Skardu. Bottom right of the Indus (October 2007)

A disadvantage, which is also characteristic of the past, still exists today. Baltistan is not on any transport routes through which international trade flows are running. In the past, it was a considerable disadvantage for the country that Baltistan had no significant trade route connecting the Silk Road to the Indian subcontinent. An important north-south connection to the Silk Road ran in the east of Baltistan from Central Asia over the Karakorum Pass to Nubra and Ladakh and from there to the west to Kashmir and India. This trade route was accessible from the Khaplu in the east of Baltistan, but with great difficulty for a few months a year,

A further connection from Baltistan to Central Asia went through the Shigar and Baraldu Valley to Askole. From there, you reached the Mustagh Pass, either via the Baltoro Glacier, from where you can continue north to reach Yarkand. Arora (p. 208) describes another route across the Punmah (~ Panmah) glacier leading to the Mustagh Pass. Conway used a itinerary that led him from Hunza and Nagar across the Hispar Pass and the Biafo Glacier to Askole.  

Figure 8: Reiserouten of Baltistan to the north: The route from Askole over the Baltoro glacier to the Mustagh pass (green), the route over the Punmah glacier (blue) and Conway route over the Biafo glacier to the Hispar Pass and to Nagar and Hunza (red) .According to "India and Pakistan" (Jammu and Kashmir) Ni-43-03. 1: 250,000. Mundik

All these transitions from Baltistan to the north were evidently controlled by Hunza in the first half of the nineteenth century. This is the result of the report by Godfrey Thomas Vigne, who during one of his stays in Baltistan between 1835 and 1838 attempted to cross the Mustagh Pass. His host, Ahmad Shah , first sent an ambassador from Hunza, who happened to be in Skardu at that time, with some companions to the ruler of Hunza to secure a safe escort for Vigne (Vigne, p. 379-382). 

Figure 9: Adolph Schlagintweit in 1856 on the way to the Mustagh Pass. A picture of the Mustagh glacier. Source: http://www.schlagintweit.de/brueder.htm

The journey through Shigar to Central Asia was already mentioned by the Frenchman François Bernier, who traveled to Kashmir in 1663, following the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb (1658-1707), and reported that Shigar needed 30 days to reach Kashgar. Obviously, the very difficult route across the Mustagh Pass in the period between 1639 and 1665 during the reign of the Skardu rulers Adam Khan and Murad Khan of the merchant karawanen was used for the goods traffic between Kashmir and Central Asia. For this reason, the Ladakh -Kung-Kung Ladakh trade route had been blocked by Ladakh king Sengge Namgyel (Petech, p. 51) for political reasons . This barrier continued in 1663, When François Bernier visited Kashmir. For a stronger use of the Mustagh Pass as a connection to Central Asia, a report in the Verschronik Shigar Nāmaalso speaks . In the fifties of the seventeenth century Imam Quli Khan , the ruler of Shigar, received the sister of the Governor of Kashgar, who traveled through his country with great entourage and with a letter from the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan (Behrouz, p. 122ff) , Obviously the lady was on her way back to Kashgar, where she must have used the Mustang Pass. The ruler of Shigar, was the sister of the governor of Kashgar in the fifties of the fifteenth century, who traveled through his country with great entourage and with a companion letter from the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (Behrouz, p. 122ff). Obviously the lady was on her way back to Kashgar, where she must have used the Mustang Pass. The ruler of Shigar, was the sister of the governor of Kashgar in the fifties of the fifteenth century, who traveled through his country with great entourage and with a companion letter from the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (Behrouz, p. 122ff). Obviously the lady was on her way back to Kashgar, where she must have used the Mustang Pass.

It is difficult to assess the extent to which Baltistan benefited from this trade between the Silk Road and Kashmir. Probably the rulers of Shigar and Skardu could raise duties. It is, however, to be assumed that with the outbreak of the war between Sher Khan of Skardu and Imam Quli Khan of Shigar from about 1670 a safe passage through Baltistan for the dealers from Kashmir no longer existed. Since the trade blockade was lifted no later than 1665, with the recognition of the suzerainty of the Mughal empire over Ladakh, there was no longer a need to prefer the difficult route over the Mustagh Pass to the more comfortable connection via the Karakorum Pass.  

		Figure 12: Route from Arandu to Gilgit via the Chogo Lungma Glacier (red) and route to Hunza / Nagar to the northern Hispar Glacier (blue). Detail from "India and Pakistan" (Jammu and Kashmir) Ni-43-03. 1: 250,000. Mundik

Another route between Shigar and Hunza / Nagar or Gilgit went through the Basha Valley to Arandu. From there, one could travel either north to the Hispar Glacier to reach Hunza and Nagar, or choose the route across the Chogo Lungma Glacier to Gilgit.

All these connections in Baltistan with regions north and north-west of this country were only usable for a few months in the summer. It is interesting that the map "India and Pakistan" (Jammu and Kashmir) contains a mountain fortress in Askole as well as in Arandu, which undoubtedly served to protect the Kingdom of Shigar And a photo of the fortress of Askole was taken by De Filippi during his expedition in 1909.

The routes from Shigar and Skardu to the countries west of Baltistan Gilgit and Astor led through Rondu. However, the difficult routes along the Indus were scarcely usable in the summer, which is why in order to reach Astor, a more southerly route through the high mountain range took about six days. This summer route was described by Neve (p. 117) as follows: "Two day marches from Skardu to Shigathang. Then from Shigathang to Ordokas 19.3 km. For some kilometers easy to commit. Then follows a steep, rocky ascent to the height of 3960 m. No firewood. From Ordokas to Chumik: 14.48 km. 6.4 km ascent, steep and over snow to the bank pass, 4.876 m. ... Then steep descent over 8 km and around 1,372 m altitude difference to Chumik, Where firewood can be purchased. From Chumik to Thinge: 21.7 km. Over 9.6 km gradual descent to the right bank of Herpo Nullah. Then 2.4 km to a wooded plain. Then take an easy trail on 3.2 km, which becomes more difficult afterwards to the village of Gutumsar. Further 3.2 km to the village of Thingeh, which is located at 2,438 m altitude. From Thinge to Astor: 22.5 km. For 11.2 km an easy way through many settlements, then difficult over 3.2 km and turn slightly for another 3.2 km. Then follows a steep descent. Cross the Astor River and climb to the mountain fortress. Then you cross a ravine to the bungalow. "More details about this route can also be found in the article about Rondu (see figures 10a and 10b). 6 km gradual descent to the right bank of Herpo Nullah. Then 2.4 km to a wooded plain. Then take an easy trail on 3.2 km, which becomes more difficult afterwards to the village of Gutumsar. Further 3.2 km to the village of Thingeh, which is located at 2,438 m altitude. From Thinge to Astor: 22.5 km. For 11.2 km an easy way through many settlements, then difficult over 3.2 km and turn slightly for another 3.2 km. Then follows a steep descent. Cross the Astor River and climb to the mountain fortress. Then you cross a ravine to the bungalow. "More details about this route can also be found in the article about Rondu (see figures 10a and 10b). 6 km gradual descent to the right bank of Herpo Nullah. Then 2.4 km to a wooded plain. Then take an easy trail on 3.2 km, which becomes more difficult afterwards to the village of Gutumsar. Further 3.2 km to the village of Thingeh, which is located at 2,438 m altitude. From Thinge to Astor: 22.5 km. For 11.2 km an easy way through many settlements, then difficult over 3.2 km and turn slightly for another 3.2 km. Then follows a steep descent. Cross the Astor River and climb to the mountain fortress. Then you cross a ravine to the bungalow. "More details about this route can also be found in the article about Rondu (see figures 10a and 10b). 438 m height. From Thinge to Astor: 22.5 km. For 11.2 km an easy way through many settlements, then difficult over 3.2 km and turn slightly for another 3.2 km. Then follows a steep descent. Cross the Astor River and climb to the mountain fortress. Then you cross a ravine to the bungalow. "More details about this route can also be found in the article about Rondu (see figures 10a and 10b). 438 m height. From Thinge to Astor: 22.5 km. For 11.2 km an easy way through many settlements, then difficult over 3.2 km and turn slightly for another 3.2 km. Then follows a steep descent. Cross the Astor River and climb to the mountain fortress. Then you cross a ravine to the bungalow. "More details about this route can also be found in the article about Rondu (see figures 10a and 10b).

Figure 13: Summer route from Skardu to Astor (blue) and from Skardu via the Satpara lake and the Deosai peak to Kashmir (red). Detail from "India and Pakistan" (Jammu and Kashmir) Ni-43-03. 1: 250,000. Mundik

While traveling from Rondu to Kashmir, the main connection between Skardu and Kashmir ran across the Deosai Plateau, an inhospitable, uninhabited plain at an altitude of 4,100 m, which could also be crossed only a few months a year. The journey from Skardu to the border of Kashmir took about 8 days. Vigne used this route in August / September 1835 for his first visit to Baltistan. Shortly before Skardu, this route led along the eastern shore of Lake Satpara, which was equipped with defenses. The western shore of the lake was considered impassable. Today you reach the Deosai high plateau over a new road, which can be driven by car.

Figure 14: The Deosai Plane. Source: Wikimedia Commons, author Ch. Muhammad Umer

A route to Westladakh, frequently used by travelers (Thomson, Ujfalvy, Conway, De Filippi, etc.) after the conquest of Baltistan, led from the confluence of the Indus and Shayok along the Indus via Sermik , Parkuta, Tolti and Kharmang to Marol, From where you could travel along the Shingo River to Purik and Kargil (Figure 15, red dashed line). This route was used by the main army of Zorawar Singh during his conquest campaign against Baltistan in 1840 (see the article on Ahmad Shah, 6th incidence of the Dogra from Jammu and loss of his rule). The main route between Ladakh and Khaplu is the Chorbat Pass. This caravan trail led from the Hanu River on the Indus via this pass to Shayok (Figure 15, red line). Another route (blue line) ran along the Shayok to Nubra, from where you could reach the capital of Ladakh via the Khardung Pass, Leh.

Figure 15: The main connections between East-Baltistan (Kartaksho and Khaplu) and Ladakh. Detail from the map created in 1842 by John Walter according to the data of Godfrey Thomas Vigne on behalf of the East India Company

The economic disadvantage brought about by the difficult accessibility of the Baltistan region was, in a certain way, a relative protection against military conquests by neighbors. The six domains of Baltistan, whose history can be traced very well from the end of the sixteenth century to the year 1840, also had a considerable military potential, which, however, made them less likely to defend their country against enemies from the outside than for ever-recurring battles Among each other. Foreign enemies were regularly called into the country by the hostile parties, and were supported in their conquests by groups from Baltistan, who were hostile to the respective rulers.

Inside, the difficult communication channels promoted the division of the country into small domains. The main lines between the greater kingdoms of Skardu, Shigar and Khaplu were marked by the large Indus and Shayok rivers, which were difficult to cross with larger units. For the river crossing, use the small, float-like zak, where inflated boarders carried a platform of thin boughs on which people and goods were placed to the crossing. Horses were tied to the raft so built and swam behind . De Filippi used a larger boat during his expedition in 1909 to cross the Indus near Skardu. The fact that such boats were already known in Baltistan in the 17th century can be seen in a report by Shigar Nāma (Behrouz, 

Figure 16: Making a Zak to Conway (p.572)

Figure 19: Transition of the Shigar with the Zak in 1909 to De Filippi, p. 342

In the narrow gorges of the Indus in Rondu and Kartaksho, there were Hängebrücken from plant fibers, on which one could cross the Indus. There were also bridges in the valley of the Baroldo River. At low water levels, especially in winter, temporary bridges were used. At certain points a rope was laid across the river, into which an iron ring was inserted, with which the traveler could slide from one bank to another (see also Ujfalva, p. 259). In the winter, in order to accelerate the flow of the rivers with low water levels at night, thin branches of trees were laid over the still open waters during the night, which in a short time led to a closed ice cover. You could then cross the river on this ice sheet. This method was used by Zorawar Singh in the winter of 1840,

Figure 22: Hängebrücke across the Punmah River east of Askole to De Filippi, p. 330

Figure 25: Still to be found today: Crossing the Indus on a cable west of Mendi (October 2008)

Today, from Skardu, drive to Khaplu, about 100 km away, by car on the left side of the river Indus, crossing the river shortly after its confluence with the Shayok via a modern bridge that can be driven by car. Continue on the left side of the Shayok along a well-paved road and reach Khaplu from Skardu after about three hours. In ancient times the left side of the Shayok was impassable. The traveler, who needed five days for the route from Skardu to Khaplu,  crossed the Indus by Gol with the Zak, and traveled across Kiris and Kuru to Balghar , where he had to cross the Thalle River. He continued his journey over Daghoni and Kharku , After which he crossed the Shayok with the Zak in Khaplu's sight to reach Khaplu. Because of the latent threat of Khaplu by the King Skardu and Shigar in the 17th and 18th centuries, the small Kiris dominion, which also belonged to Kuru, served as a buffer state between the western territories of Skardu and Shigar and the eastern kingdom of Khaplu. In addition, the Reiseroute described above was equipped with mountain fortifications in Nar , Kiris, Kuru, Balghar and Kharku. The fortress formed the settlement in Saling , which guarded access to the Hushe Valley. In the same century, the small Kiris territory, which belonged to Kuru, served as a buffer state between the western territories of Skardu and Shigar and the eastern kingdom of Khaplu. In addition, the Reiseroute described above was equipped with mountain fortifications in Nar , Kiris, Kuru, Balghar and Kharku. The fortress formed the settlement in Saling , which guarded access to the Hushe Valley. In the same century, the small Kiris territory, which belonged to Kuru, served as a buffer state between the western territories of Skardu and Shigar and the eastern kingdom of Khaplu. In addition, the Reiseroute described above was equipped with mountain fortifications in Nar , Kiris, Kuru, Balghar and Kharku. The fortress formed the settlement in Saling , which guarded access to the Hushe Valley.

Figure 27: The old caravan route between Khaplu and Skardu (red), connecting this route to Shigar (red dashed) and the route from Shigar to Daghoni over the Thalle Pass (blue). Detail from "India and Pakistan" (Jammu and Kashmir) Ni-43-03. 1: 250,000. Mundik

From Shigar, one went first to Nar and then to Kiris, from where one reached Khaplu on the way described above. Another route led from Shigar across the Thalle Pass (Thalle La) to Daghoni. To get to this place from Shigar, one needed three days. Vigne was the first European to choose this route to travel to Khaplu. From Daghoni one reached the usual Khaplu route after another day.

Figure 28: View of the Thalle Pass in the fifties of the 19th century after Schlagintweit, p. 264

2. Agriculture and livestock, hunting and fishing, crafts, trade and mining

It should be noted that agriculture is still the most important source of income for the population in Baltistan. However, modern investigations, which mainly relate to the Gilgit-Baltistan region (Report No. 55998-PK (2010) and Hagler Bailly Pakistan (2005)), show that the income from employment outside agriculture is now the amounts earned From agriculture. According to the report no. 55998-PK in 1994, the agricultural sector accounted for 57% of the total income of the population in Gilgit-Baltistan. This percentage decreased to 37% in 2005. Even though the percentage of these regions may be somewhat higher due to the less favorable geographic location in Baltistan compared to Gilgit, A similar tendency is also apparent here. At the same time, in Gilgit-Baltistan, the share of non-agricultural workers rose from 49% in 2001 to 66% in 2005, with 26.7% of total employment in 2004/05 accounted for by the services sector and 10.5% by the construction industry.1 / 3 of non-agricultural workers was employed in public administration. Of these, 42% were again employed by the military. Regions with a higher proportion of agricultural workers are classified as poorer. For example, the proportion of those living in Gilgit below the poverty level was only 14% in 2005, while this share in the Gangche district in Baltistan amounted to 33% in the same year (Report No. 55998-PK, 2.11). The greater dependency on agriculture has also caused greater vulnerability to the increase in poverty in the past. In Gilgit-Baltistan, for example, the proportion of those who fell under the poverty line of Pakistan increased by 10% between 1998 and 2002, while it declined by more than 10% in the next three years. This is due to weather-related crop losses and changes in market prices for agricultural products. The lowest-income group in Gilgit-Baltistan accounted for 59% of their income from agriculture, while the highest-income earners were only 34% of the income from agriculture (Report No. 55998-PK, 2.15). In the years between 1998 and 2002 by 10%, whereas in the following three years it declined by more than 10%. This is due to weather-related crop losses and changes in market prices for agricultural products. The lowest-income group in Gilgit-Baltistan accounted for 59% of their income from agriculture, while the highest-income earners were only 34% of the income from agriculture (Report No. 55998-PK, 2.15). In the years between 1998 and 2002 by 10%, whereas in the following three years it declined by more than 10%. This is due to weather-related crop losses and changes in market prices for agricultural products. The lowest-income group in Gilgit-Baltistan accounted for 59% of their income from agriculture, while the highest-income earners were only 34% of the income from agriculture (Report No. 55998-PK, 2.15).

The bulk of the agricultural production in Baltistan is intended for self-consumption. In 2005, only 15% of the products produced in Gilgit-Baltistan were offered for sale on the markets. Changes to a more market-oriented production are particularly evident in potato cultivation and the increased cultivation of apples, cherries and apricots. In 2005, 35% of the income from agriculture in Gilgit-Baltistan was spent on field and vegetable cultivation, 38% on animal husbandry and 16% on fruit growing. The remaining 11% were attributable to forestry. For the period 1996 and 2006 the proportion of livestock has increased considerably, which is explained by an increase in prices for animal products such as meat, butter and milk. Productivity in agriculture Baltistan is lower than the rest of Pakistan. In principle, it can be said that agricultural production is by far not enough to support the population of Baltistan. As a result, a substantial portion of the foodstuffs from the rest of Pakistan are delivered to Baltistan (source: Report No. 55998-PK9). However, this does not pose a fundamental problem for today's livelihoods in this country because the greater part of the population's income is generated outside the agricultural sector. As a result, a substantial portion of the foodstuffs from the rest of Pakistan are delivered to Baltistan (source: Report No. 55998-PK9). However, this does not pose a fundamental problem for today's livelihoods in this country because the greater part of the population's income is generated outside the agricultural sector. As a result, a substantial portion of the foodstuffs from the rest of Pakistan are delivered to Baltistan (source: Report No. 55998-PK9). However, this does not pose a fundamental problem for today's livelihoods in this country because the greater part of the population's income is generated outside the agricultural sector.

Author: Dieter Schuh, 2011, amended (4.2 On the Islamization of Baltistan) 2014